Monday, March 31, 2008
Announcements:
- I have updated the group web project list. Groups 1, 5, and 8 still need to let me know their topics.
Assignments:
- Read Chapter 14 and answer the recommended homework questions.
- Read Chapter 15 in preparatin for your lab this week.
- Continue working on your Web Project, and send me the URL for
your group's website once it is posted.
- For 2 days worth of class participation credit, you are
encouraged to create your own personal website in your UNC server space
(www.unc.edu/~onyen). This website does not have to be anything fancy,
just something other than the current default message that appears for
a blank webpage. Once you have completed this assignmment, send
me your URL.
Chapter 13 - Quantum Physics - "probably the most successful
theory ever invented" (Hobson, p.299)
This chapter synthesizes many concepts from previous chapters.
Quantization of energy
Examples of quantization
Digital versus analog: digital = discrete,
binary (1 or 0); analog = continuous
Application: quantum computing
Terminology: What is meant by a "quantum leap"?
Light is a wave in an EM field. What is "waving"? [the
field]
Planck's constant (h) and
quantization: En =
nhf, where h = 6.63 x 10-34 J*s
(note: this is a very small number!)
1 photon = 1 quantum of
energy: hf
photons are not really particles but "wave packets"
Can we see individual photons?
Photons and photoelectric effect
- energy, work function, cutoff
frequency, max K
KEmax = E - Wo
Einstein is most famous
for his theory of relativity and E = mc2, but he won the
Noble prize in physics (1921) for his discovery of the photoelectric
effect.
Can we see individual photons?
Double-slit experiment with
light and matter - similar results, therefore both behave like waves!
The wave nature of matter and matter fields
The de Broglie wavelength, wave-particle duality: lambda = h/mv
Wavelength and resolution
X-ray diffraction
electron microscope
Probability density distributions
Schroedinger's
equation
Chapter 14 - The Quantum Universe
Quantum uncertainty: Heisenberg uncertainty principle: x*mv
> h/4pi; E*t > h/4pi
It is impossible to know both the position and
momentum of a particle with infinite precision.
The act of making a measurement or observing a system can affect the
outcome of an experiment.
Nonlocality principle - If two particles are entangled, then a
measurement of one affects the other, regardless of their separation
distance.
Critique of the movie trailer from Down
the Rabbit
Hole: The
Double Slit Experiment
Atomic spectra and quantum physics.
Electron states and energy levels.
Chapter 15 - Nuclear Physics
Nuclear physics is the study of the nuclei (center) of atoms and
associated energy levels that are similar to those of atomic physics
(which deals with electron energy levels), but the forces and energies
associated with nuclear reactions are about 1000 times greater!
The Constituents and
Structure of Nuclei
Nuclei consist of protons
and neutrons, collectively
called nucleons.
Nuclear mass (nearly same as atomic mass since me
<< mp): A = N + Z
Z = Atomic number
N = Neutron number
A = Nuclear (~atomic) mass number
Isotopes
are nuclei with the same atomic number (Z) but different neutron number
(N).
Ponderable: Why are atoms defined by Z instead
of N or E?
Atomic mass unit:
1 u = 1/12 mass of one atom
of C-12 (common element in all organic matter)
Energy
(E=mc^2): 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c^2 (which is much greater than
atomic energies: ~ eV)
Neutrons and protons have masses slightly greater
than 1 u, with mn > mp
Nuclei are held together by the strong nuclear force, which is
attractive between all nulceons within range of few fermis (fm).
Nuclear
size: radius of a nucleus is proportional to the cubed
root of the number of nucleons: r = (1.2 fm)A^1/3
Note: The atomic diameter of the
hydrogen atom (~1 angstrom = 0.1 nm), is about 50 000 times bigger than
the nucleus
(~2 fm).
This means that if the
nucleus of the hydrogen atom were the size of a baseball, the electron
would typically be ~4 km away.
Note: It just so happens that 1
fermi (fm) = 10-15 m = 1 femtometer = 1 fm.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity
refers to emissions observed when a nucleus decays to a lower energy
state or changes its composition.
Alpha
decay
- radioactivity with lowest energy. Alpha particle is He
nucleus (2 protons + 2 neutrons). half-thickness ~ paper sheet
Beta
decay
- Emission of an electron (B-) or positron (B+). Can occur
when neutron decays into proton, electron, and antineutrino.
half-thickness ~
cm Al
Gamma
decay
- Occurs when an excited nucleus drops to a lower energy state and
emits a photon (Z and N remain same). half-thickness ~ cm Pb
Ponderable: Why is E(alpha) < E(beta) <
E(gamma)?
Activity of
a radioactive sample is the number of decays per second: 1
becquerel = 1 Bq = 1 decay/s
1 curie (Ci) = 3.7e10
decays/s (~activity of 1 g of radium, which is what Marie Curie
studied)
Half-life and Radioactive
Dating
Decay constant
(lambda): N = Noexp(-lambda*t)
Half life:
T1/2 = ln2/lamda
Decay rate or
activity: R = dN/dt = lambda*N
Carbon-14 dating
can be used to date organic materials up to ~15,000 y (Why?)
t =
1/lamda*ln(Ro/R) where Ro = 0.231 Bq, lambda = 1.21e-4
/y, T1/2 of C-14 is 5730 y
Nuclear Binding Energy -
energy needed to separate a nucleus into its component nucleons
Nuclear Fission is
the process where a large nucleus captures a neutron and then divides
into two smaller "daughter" nuclei. When this happens, two or
three neutrons are typically released, and this can result in other
fission reactions (chain reaction). This process is used in
nuclear power plants and nuclear bombs.
Nuclear Fusion occurs
when two small nuclei merge to form a larger nucleus. Energy is
needed to overcome the Coulomb repulsion of the two positive nuclei,
but the final product results
in a net release of energy (an exothermic reaction). This is the
process that fuels our Sun.
Practical Applications of
Nuclear Physics - Nuclear radiation can be useful, but it can
have harmful effects as well.
Radiation dosage can be measured in different ways:
roentgen:
1 R = 2.58e-4 C/kg (ionization charge produced by 200-keV X-rays
in 1 kg of dry air at STP)
radiation absorbed
dose (rad): 1 rad = 0.01 J/kg (energy absorbed by
any type of radiation)
Relative
Biological Effectiveness (RBE) = (dose of 200-keV X-rays)/(does
of particular radiation)
roentgen
equivalent in man (rem) = (dose in rad)*RBE
A dose of 1 rem causes same
biological damage, regardless of radiation type.
Four sensible ways to reduce radiation exposure:
1) Use smallest amount of radioactive material
necessary
2) Use appropriate shielding to block radiation
3) Increase distance from radioactive source
(exposure decreases as inverse square of distance)
4) Minimize exposure time (more damage results from
long-term exposure)
Elementary Particles
- fundamental building blocks of matter
There are four fundamental forces in nature.
From strongest to weakest they are:
1) strong nuclear
force - relative strength: 1, range of ~ 1 fm
2) electromagnetic
force - relative strength: 10-2, range: infinite
(proportional to 1/r2)
3) weak nuclear
force - relative strength: 10-6, range: ~0.001 fm
4) gravitational
force - relative strength: 10-43, range: infinite
(proportional to 1/r2)
Leptons are
elementary particles that experience the weak nuclear force but not the
strong nuclear force.
Hadrons are
composite particles that experience both the weak and strong nuclear
force.
Quarks are
elementary particles that combine to form hadrons. Mesons are formed from
quark-antiquark pairs; baryons are
formed from combinations of three quarks.